Insulin receptor signaling mediates APP processing and ß-amyloid accumulation without altering survival in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

In brains from patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), expression of insulin receptor (IR), insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R), and insulin receptor substrate proteins is downregulated. A key step in the pathogenesis of AD is the accumulation of amyloid precursor protein (APP) cleavage products, ß-amyloid (Aß)(1-42) and Aß(1-40). Recently, we and others have shown that central IGF-1 resistance reduces Aß accumulation as well as Aß toxicity and promotes survival. To define the role of IR in this context, we crossed neuron-specific IR knockout mice (nIR(-/-)) with Tg2576 mice, a well-established mouse model of an AD-like pathology. Here, we show that neuronal IR deficiency in Tg2576 (nIR(-/-)Tg2576) mice leads to markedly decreased Aß burden but does not rescue premature mortality of Tg2576 mice. Analyzing APP C-terminal fragments (CTF) revealed decreased α-/ß-CTFs in the brains of nIR(-/-)Tg2576 mice suggesting decreased APP processing. Cell based experiments showed that inhibition of the PI3-kinase pathway suppresses endosomal APP cleavage and decreases α- as well as ß-secretase activity. Deletion of only one copy of the neuronal IGF-1R partially rescues the premature mortality of Tg2576 mice without altering total amyloid load. Analysis of Tg2576 mice expressing either a dominant negative or constitutively active form of forkhead box-O (FoxO)1 did not reveal any alteration of amyloid burden, APP processing and did not rescue premature mortality in these mice. Thus, our findings identified IR signaling as a potent regulator of Aß accumulation in vivo. But exclusively decreased IGF-1R expression reduces AD-associated mortality independent of ß-amyloid accumulation and FoxO1-mediated transcription.

Insulin receptor substrate-1 and -2 mediate resistance to glucose-induced caspase-3 activation in human neuroblastoma cells.

Hyperglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes causes multiple neuronal complications, e.g., diabetic polyneuropathy, cognitive decline, and embryonic neural crest defects due to increased apoptosis. Possible mechanisms of neuronal response to increased glucose burden are still a matter of debate. Insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) receptor signaling inhibits glucose-induced caspase-3 activation and apoptotic cell death. The insulin receptor substrates (IRS) are intracellular adapter proteins mediating insulin's and IGF-1's intracellular effects. Even though all IRS proteins have similar function and structure, recent data suggest different actions of IRS-1 and IRS-2 in mediating their anti-apoptotic effects in glucose neurotoxicity. We therefore investigated the role of IRS-1/-2 in glucose-induced caspase-3 activation using human neuroblastoma cells. Overexpression of IRS-1 or IRS-2 caused complete resistance to glucose-induced caspase-3 cleavage. Inhibition of PI3-kinase reversed this protective effect of IRS-1 or IRS-2. However, MAP-kinases inhibition had only minor impact. IRS overexpression increased MnSOD abundance as well as BAD phosphorylation while Bim and BAX levels remained unchanged. Since Akt promotes cell survival at least partially via phosphorylation and inhibition of downstream forkhead box-O (FoxO) transcription factors, we generated neuroblastoma cells stably overexpressing a dominant negative mutant of FoxO1 mimicking activation of the insulin/IGF-1 pathway on FoxO-mediated transcription. Using these cells we showed that FoxO1 is not involved in neuronal protection mediated by increased IRS-1/-2 expression. Thus, overexpression of both IRS-1 and IRS-2 induces complete resistance to glucose-induced caspase-3 activation via PI3-kinase mediated BAD phosphorylation and MnSOD expression independent of FoxO1.

Neuronal insulin receptor substrate 2 (IRS2) expression is regulated by ZBP89 and SP1 binding to the IRS2 promoter.

Since neuronal insulin receptor substrate 2 (IRS2)-mediated signals coordinate key processes in rodent physiology such as food intake, fertility, longevity, and aging-related behavior, we analyzed the mechanisms of neuronal IRS2 expression in neuroblastoma (SHSY5Y) and hypothalamic (GT1-7) cell lines. Using dual luciferase reporter assays and IRS2 promoter deletion constructs, we identified a regulatory cassette within the IRS2 promoter between -779 and -679 bp from the translational start which is responsible for approximately 50% of neuronal IRS2 promoter activity. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays and electromobility shift assay revealed four overlapping ZBP89/specificity protein 1 (SP1) binding sites which alternatively bind to ZBP89 (ZNF148 as listed in the HUGO Database) or SP1. Activation of this cassette is inhibited by phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) via increased ZBP89 binding to the promoter. Serum starvation caused increased SP1 binding at one specific SP1 site and decreased binding to another, proving a regulatory interaction between the different binding sites within this promoter cassette to tightly control IRS2 expression. Mutants containing all the possible combinations of one, two, three, or all the four SP1 binding sites of the IRS2 promoter revealed that SP1 binding to one particular site is most important for promoter activation. Stable downregulation of ZBP89 using siRNA substantially increased IRS2 mRNA and protein expression. Thus, alternative binding of ZBP89 or SP1 to the described region in the IRS2 promoter regulates neuronal IRS2 expression in a PI3K-dependent manner.

Role of WNT-5a in the determination of human mesenchymal stem cells into preadipocytes.

Increasing adipocyte size as well as numbers is important in the development of obesity and type 2 diabetes, with adipocytes being generated from mesenchymal precursor cells. This process includes the determination of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) into preadipocytes (PA) and the differentiation of PA into mature fat cells. Although the process of differentiation has been highly investigated, the determination in humans is poorly understood. In this study, we compared human MSC and human committed PA on a cellular and molecular level to gain further insights into the regulatory mechanisms in the determination process. Both cell types showed similar morphology and expression patterns of common mesenchymal and hematopoietic surface markers. However, although MSC were able to differentiate into adipocytes and osteocytes, PA were only able to undergo adipogenesis, indicating that PA lost their multipotency during determination. WNT-5a expression showed significantly higher levels in MSC compared with PA suggesting that WNT-5a down-regulation might be important in the determination process. Indeed, incubation of human MSC in medium containing neutralizing WNT-5a antibodies abolished their ability to undergo osteogenesis, although adipogenesis was still possible. An opposite effect was achieved using recombinant WNT-5a protein. On a molecular level, WNT-5a was found to promote c-Jun N-terminal kinase-dependent intracellular signaling in MSC. Activation of this noncanonical pathway resulted in the induction of osteopontin expression further indicating pro-osteogenic effects of WNT-5a. Our data suggest that WNT-5a is necessary to maintain osteogenic potential of MSC and that inhibition of WNT-5a signaling therefore plays a role in their determination into PA in humans.

Neuronal IGF-1 resistance reduces Abeta accumulation and protects against premature death in a model of Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by progressive neurodegeneration leading to loss of cognitive abilities and ultimately to death. Postmortem investigations revealed decreased expression of cerebral insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 receptor (IGF-1R) and insulin receptor substrate (IRS) proteins in patients with AD. To elucidate the role of insulin/IGF-1 signaling in AD, we crossed mice expressing the Swedish mutation of amyloid precursor protein (APP(SW), Tg2576 mice) as a model for AD with mice deficient for either IRS-2, neuronal IGF-1R (nIGF-1R(-/-)), or neuronal insulin receptor (nIR(-/-)), and analyzed survival, glucose, and APP metabolism. In the present study, we show that IRS-2 deficiency in Tg2576 mice completely reverses premature mortality in Tg2576 females and delays beta-amyloid (Abeta) accumulation. Analysis of APP metabolism suggested that delayed Abeta accumulation resulted from decreased APP processing. To delineate the upstream signal responsible for IRS-2-mediated disease protection, we analyzed mice with nIGF-1R or nIR deficiency predominantly in the hippocampus. Interestingly, both male and female nIGF-1R(-/-)Tg2576 mice were protected from premature death in the presence of decreased Abeta accumulation specifically in the hippocampus formation. However, neuronal IR deletion had no influence on lethality of Tg2576 mice. Thus, impaired IGF-1/IRS-2 signaling prevents premature death and delays amyloid accumulation in a model of AD.

IRS-2 branch of IGF-1 receptor signaling is essential for appropriate timing of myelination.

Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 increases proliferation, inhibits apoptosis and promotes differentiation of oligodendrocytes and their precursor cells, indicating an important function for IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R) signaling in myelin development. The insulin receptor substrates (IRS), IRS-1 and -2 serve as intracellular IGF-1R adaptor proteins and are expressed in neurons, oligodendrocytes and their precursors. To address the role of IRS-2 in myelination, we analyzed myelination in IRS-2 deficient (IRS-2(-/-)) mice and age-matched controls during postnatal development. Interestingly, expression of the most abundant myelin proteins, myelin basic protein and proteolipid protein was reduced in IRS-2(-/-) brains at postnatal day 10 (P10) as compared to controls. myelin basic protein immunostaining in P10-IRS-2(-/-) mice revealed a reduced immunostaining, but an unchanged regional distribution pattern. In cerebral myelin isolates at P10 unaltered relative expression of different myelin proteins was found, indicating quantitatively reduced but not qualitatively altered myelination. Interestingly, up-regulation of IRS-1 expression and increased IGF-1R signaling were observed in IRS-2(-/-) mice at P10-14, indicating a compensatory mechanism to overcome IRS-2 deficiency. Adult IRS-2(-/-) mice showed unaltered myelination and motor function. Furthermore, in neuronal/brain-specific insulin receptor knockout mice myelination was unchanged. Thus, our experiments reveal that IGF-1R/IRS-2 mediated signals are critical for appropriate timing of myelination in vivo.

Transcription factor FBI-1 acts as a dual regulator in adipogenesis by coordinated regulation of cyclin-A and E2F-4.

Generation of new adipocytes plays a major role in the development of obesity. We previously have shown that transcriptional repressor factor that binds to IST (FBI)-1 exerts a dual effect in the process of adipogenesis by inhibiting proliferation and promoting differentiation of preadipocytes. The aim of the present study was to identify FBI-1 regulated molecular effectors that could account for these effects. Overexpressing FBI-1 in preadipocytes resulted in reduced expression of the cell cycle regulator cyclin A, which may explain FBI-1 induced inhibition of proliferation. Interestingly, FBI-1 repressed cyclin A promoter activity through an indirect mechanisms that did not involve direct binding of FBI-1 to the promoter sequence, but rather FBI-1 inhibition of transcriptional activator Sp1 binding to a regulatory element at -452 to -443. We also show that FBI-1 promotes terminal preadipocyte differentiation through a mechanism involving decreased levels of expression of the PPARgamma inhibitor E2F-4. FBI-1 significantly reduced E2F-4 promoter activity. Contrary to cyclin A, we found FBI-1-induced repression of E2F-4 is mediated by a direct mechanism via a FBI-1 regulatory element at -11 to -5. As function of transcriptional repressors normally depends on the presence of regulatory co-factors we also performed expression profiling of potential FBI-1 co-repressors throughout adipogenesis. In these experiments Sin3A and histon deacetylase (HDAC)-1 showed a similar expression pattern compared to FBI-1. Strikingly, co-immunoprecipitation studies revealed that FBI-1 binds Sin3A and HDAC-1 to form a repressor complex. Furthermore, by mutational analysis the amino terminal Poxvirus (POZ) domain of FBI-1 was found to be important for Sin3A and HDAC-1 binding. Taken together, FBI-1 is the first transcriptional repressor shown to act as a dual regulator in adipogenesis exerting repressor activities on target genes by both, direct and indirect mechanisms.

Peripheral hyperinsulinemia promotes tau phosphorylation in vivo.

Cerebral insulin receptors play an important role in regulation of energy homeostasis and development of neurodegeneration. Accordingly, type 2 diabetes characterized by insulin resistance is associated with an increased risk of developing Alzheimer's disease. Formation of neurofibrillary tangles, which contain hyperphosphorylated tau, represents a key step in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we directly addressed whether peripheral hyperinsulinemia as one feature of type 2 diabetes can alter in vivo cerebral insulin signaling and tau phosphorylation. Peripheral insulin stimulation rapidly increased insulin receptor tyrosine phosphorylation, mitogen-activated protein kinase and phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase pathway activation, and dose-dependent tau phosphorylation at Ser202 in the central nervous system. Phospho-FoxO1 and PI-3,4,5-phosphate immunostainings of brains from insulin-stimulated mice showed neuronal staining throughout the brain, not restricted to brain areas without functional blood-brain barrier. Importantly, in insulin-stimulated neuronal/brain-specific insulin receptor knockout mice, cerebral insulin receptor signaling and tau phosphorylation were completely abolished. Thus, peripherally injected insulin directly targets the brain and causes rapid cerebral insulin receptor signal transduction and site-specific tau phosphorylation in vivo, revealing new insights into the linkage of type 2 diabetes and neurodegeneration.

Cyclooxygenase COX-2a, a novel COX-2 mRNA variant, in platelets from patients after coronary artery bypass grafting.

There are two principal cyclooxygenase isoforms referred to as COX-1 and COX-2. Recently, COX-3 has been identified. We have demonstrated the expression of COX-2 in platelets from patients after coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). Careful biochemical analysis revealed that, when compared to recombinant COX-2, platelet COX-2 had a slightly higher electrophoretic mobility. Two COX-2 sequences (approximately 1.8 kb, approximately 1.7 kb) were cloned from platelet mRNA. The approximately 1.7 kb sequence, designated COX-2a, differed from the human COX-2 sequence only in a deletion from position +458 to +567. Similar to the human COX-3, there is a frame shift in the COX-2a sequence resulting in a TAA stop codon at position +490. Thus, the expression of a COX-2a protein corresponding to the 67 kDa COX-2 protein is not clear. However, the marked shifting from COX-2 to COX-2a in platelets from some patients after CABG is a striking finding.

The C-terminal peptide of thrombospondin-1 stimulates distinct signaling pathways but induces an activation-independent agglutination of platelets and other cells.

A peptide from the C-terminal domain of thrombospondin-1 (4N1-1) has been proposed to stimulate platelet aggregation by a novel mechanism involving both an activation-independent agglutination and an activation-dependent, glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa-mediated aggregation which involves GPVI signaling but does not involve CD47. The present study demonstrates that 4N1-1 stimulated a different pattern of signal transduction pathways than the GPVI agonist convulxin. Furthermore, 4N1-1-induced platelet aggregation was activation-independent and not dependent on GPVI or GPIIb/IIIa. Interestingly, 4N1-1 also stimulated activation-independent agglutination of different megakaryocytic and non-megakaryocytic cells. 4N1-1-induced cell agglutination but not platelet signaling was inhibited by anti-CD47 antibodies.